
# Inner-product spaces

Let $X$ be a vector space over $\K \in \{\R,\C\}$.

## Inner-product spaces

An inner product $\langle \cdot, \cdot \rangle$ on $X$ is a map $X \times X \to \K$, $(x,y) \mapsto \langle x,y \rangle$, that is conjugate symmetric $\langle x,y \rangle = \overline{\langle y,x \rangle},$ linear in its first argument, \begin{align} &\langle \lambda x,y \rangle = \lambda \langle x,y \rangle,\\ &\langle x + y, z \rangle = \langle x , z \rangle + \langle y, z \rangle, \end{align} and non-degenerate (positive definite), $\langle x, x \rangle > 0 \quad \text{ for }\quad x \neq 0,$ with $x,y,z \in X$ and $\lambda \in \K$ arbitrary. The pair $(X,\langle \cdot, \cdot \rangle)$ is called an inner-product space.

Ex.
• The canonical inner product is the dot product in $\R^n$: $\langle x, y \rangle := x \cdot y = \sum_{j=1}^n x_j y_j.$
• For matrices in $M_{n \times n}(\R)$ one can define a dot product by setting $\langle A, B \rangle := \mathrm{tr}(B^t A),$ where $\mathrm{tr}(C) = \sum_{j=1}^n c_{jj}$ is the trace of a matrix $C$, and $B^t$ is the transponse of $B$. Then $B^t A = \sum_{j=1}^n b^t_{ij} a_{jk} = \sum_{j=1}^n b_{ji} a_{jk},$ and $\mathrm{tr}(B^t A) = \sum_{k=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n b_{jk} a_{jk} = \sum_{1 \leq j,k \leq n} a_{jk} b_{jk}$ coincides with the dot product on $\R^{nn} \cong M_{n \times n}(\R)$.

### Properties of the inner product

An inner product satisfies \begin{align*} &\text{(i)} \qquad &\langle x, y+ z \rangle &= \langle x, y \rangle + \langle x, z \rangle,\\ &\text{(ii)} \qquad &\langle x, \lambda y \rangle &= \bar\lambda \langle x, y \rangle,\\ &\text{(iii)} \qquad &\langle x,0 \rangle &= \langle 0, x \rangle = 0,\\ &\text{(iv)} \qquad & \text{ If } \langle x, z \rangle &= 0 \text{ for all } z \in X \quad \text{ then } \quad x = 0. \end{align*} N.b. By linearity, the last property implies that if $\langle x, z \rangle = \langle y, z \rangle$ for all $z \in X$, then $x = y$.

Proof

Proof

(i) $\langle x, y + z \rangle = \overline{\langle y +z, x \rangle} = \overline{\langle y, x \rangle + \langle z, x \rangle} = \overline{\langle y, x \rangle} + \overline{\langle z, x \rangle} = \langle x,y \rangle + \langle x,z \rangle.$ (ii) $\langle x, \lambda y \rangle = \overline{\langle \lambda y, x \rangle} = \overline{\lambda \langle y, x \rangle} = \bar \lambda \langle x,y \rangle.$ (iii) $\langle {\bf 0}, x \rangle = \langle 0 x, x \rangle = 0 \langle x, x \rangle = 0,$ and $\langle x, 0 \rangle = \overline{ \langle 0, x \rangle} = 0.$ (iv) $\langle x, z \rangle = 0 \text{ for all } z \in X \quad \Longrightarrow\quad \langle x, x \rangle = 0 \quad \Longrightarrow\quad x = 0.$

### Inner-product spaces as normed spaces

An inner-product space $(X,\langle \cdot, \cdot \rangle)$ carries a natural norm given by $\|x\| := \langle x, x \rangle^{1/2}$. To prove this, we need:

### > The Cauchy–Schwarz inequality

For all $x,y \in (X, \langle \cdot, \cdot \rangle)$, $| \langle x, y \rangle | \leq \| x\| \|y\|,$ with equality if and only if $x$ and $y$ are linearly dependent.

Proof

Proof

Linearly dependent case: Without loss of generality, assume that $x = \lambda y$ (if $y = \lambda x$ we can always relabel the vectors). Then \begin{align*} | \langle x, y \rangle | &= | \langle \lambda y, y \rangle | = |\lambda| \langle y, y \rangle \\ &=|\lambda| \|y\|^2 = \| \lambda y\| \|y\| = \|x\| \|y\|. \end{align*} Linearly independent case: If $x - \lambda y \neq 0$ and $y - \lambda x \neq 0$ for all $\lambda \in \K$, then also $x,y \neq 0$, and \begin{align} 0 &< \langle x + \lambda y, x + \lambda y \rangle\\ &= \langle x, x + \lambda y \rangle + \lambda \langle y, x + \lambda y\rangle \\ &= \langle x, x\rangle + \langle x, \lambda y \rangle + \lambda \langle y, x \rangle + \lambda \langle y, \lambda y \rangle \\ &= \| x \|^2 + \bar\lambda \langle x, y \rangle + \lambda \overline{\langle x, y \rangle} + \lambda \bar\lambda \| y \|^2\\ &= \| x \|^2 + 2 \Re \big( \bar\lambda \langle x, y \rangle \big) + |\lambda|^2 \| y \|^2. \end{align} If $\langle x,y \rangle = 0$ the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality is trivial, so assume that $\langle x, y \rangle \neq 0$. Let $\lambda := tu$ with $u := \frac{\langle x,y \rangle}{|\langle x, y \rangle|}$, so that $\bar\lambda \langle x, y \rangle = t \frac{\overline{\langle x,y \rangle}\langle x, y \rangle}{|\langle x, y \rangle|} = t |\langle x,y \rangle| \qquad\text{ and }\qquad |\lambda|^2 = t^2.$ Hence, $0 < \|x\|^2 + 2 t |\langle x,y\rangle| + t^2\|y\|^2 = \Big(\|y\| t + \frac{|\langle x, y \rangle|}{\|y\|}\Big)^2 + \|x\|^2 - \Big( \frac{|\langle x, y \rangle|}{\|y\|}\Big)^2.$ By choosing $t = - |\langle x,y\rangle|/\|y\|^2$, we obtain that $\frac{|\langle x,y \rangle|^2}{\|y\|^2} < \|x\|^2,$ which proves the assertion.

### > Inner-product spaces are normed

If $(X,\langle \cdot, \cdot \rangle)$ is an inner-product space, then $\|x\| = \langle x, x \rangle^{1/2}$ defines a norm on $X$.

Proof

Proof

Positive homogeneity: $\|\lambda x\| = \langle \lambda x, \lambda x \rangle^{1/2} = \big( \lambda \bar\lambda \langle x, x \rangle \big)^{1/2} = \big( |\lambda|^2 \|x\|^2 \big)^{1/2} = |\lambda | \|x\|.$ Triangle inequality: By the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality, \begin{align*} \| x + y \|^2 &= \|x\|^2 + 2 \Re \langle x,y\rangle + \|y\|^2\\ &\leq \|x\|^2 + 2 |\langle x,y\rangle| + \|y\|^2\\ &\leq \|x\|^2 + 2 \|x\| \|y\| + \|y\|^2\\ &= \big( \|x\| + \|y\| \big)^2. \end{align*} Non-degeneracy: $\|x\| = 0 \quad\Longleftrightarrow \quad \|x\|^2 = 0 \quad\Longleftrightarrow \quad \langle x, x \rangle = 0 \quad\Longleftrightarrow \quad x = 0,$ according to the positive definiteness of the inner product.

### Parallelogram law and polarization identity

Let $(X, \|\cdot\|)$ be a normed space. Then the parallelogram law $\| x + y \|^2 + \| x- y\|^2 = 2 \|x\|^2 + 2 \|y\|^2$ holds exactly if $\|\cdot\| = \langle \cdot, \cdot \rangle^{1/2}$ can be defined using an inner product on $X$. If so, $\langle x, y \rangle = \frac{1}{4} \big( \| x + y \|^2 - \|x - y\|^2 \big),$ if $X$ is real, and $\langle x , y \rangle = \frac{1}{4} \sum_{k=0}^3 i^k \| x + i^k y\|^2,$ if $X$ is complex.

Proof

Proof

We only show that the parallelogram law and polarization identity hold in an inner product space; the other direction (starting with a norm and the parallelogram identity to define an inner product) is left as an exercise.

Parallelogram law: If $X$ is an inner-product space, then $\|x \pm y \|^2 = \|x\|^2 \pm 2 \Re \langle x, y \rangle + \|y\|^2;$ the parallelogram law follows from adding these two equations to each other.

Polarization identity: When $X$ is a real inner-product space, it follows directly that $\| x + y\|^2 - \|x - y \|^2 = \big( \|x\|^2 + 2 \langle x, y \rangle + \|y\|^2 \big) - \big(\|x\|^2 - 2 \langle x, y \rangle + \|y\|^2 \big) = 4 \langle x, y \rangle.$ If $X$ is complex, the corresponding calculcation yields that \begin{align*} \sum_{k=0}^3 i^k \| x + i^k y \|^2 &= \sum_{k=0}^3 i^k \big( \|x\|^2 + 2 \Re \langle x, i^k y \rangle + \|i^k y\|^2\big)\\ &= \big( \|x\|^2 + 2 \Re \langle x, y \rangle + \|y\|^2\big) - \big( \|x\|^2 - 2 \Re \langle x, y \rangle + \|y\|^2\big)\\ &+ i\big( \|x\|^2 - 2 \Re i \langle x, y \rangle + \|y\|^2\big) - i\big( \|x\|^2 + 2 \Re i \langle x, y \rangle + \|y\|^2\big). \end{align*} Since $\Re iz = - \Im z$ for any $z \in \C$, we obtain $\sum_{k=0}^3 i^k \| x + i^k y \|^2 = 4 \Re \langle x,y \rangle + 4 \Im \langle x,y \rangle = 4 \langle x, y \rangle.$

Ex.
• Pythagoras' theorem: If $\langle x,y \rangle = 0$ in an inner-product space, then $\|x + y \|^2 = \|x\|^2 + \|y\|^2,$ which, in $\R^2$, we recognize as $a^2 + b^2 = c^2,$ with $a,b,c$ the sides of a right-angled triangle.
• If we define $\langle x, y \rangle := \frac{1}{4} \left( \| x+y\|^2 - \| x - y\|^2 \right)$ in $\R^2$ using the polarization identity , we see that \begin{align*} \langle x, y \rangle &= \frac{1}{4} \left( ( x_1 + y_1 )^2 + ( x_2 + y_2)^2 \right) - \frac{1}{4} \left( ( x_1 - y_1 )^2 + ( x_2 - y_2)^2 \right) \\ & =\frac{1}{4} \left( x_1^2 + 2x_1y_1 + y_1^2 + x_2^2 + 2x_2 y_2 + y_2^2 \right) - \frac{1}{4} \left( x_1^2 - 2x_1y_1 + y_1^2 + x_2^2 - 2x_2 y_2 + y_2^2 \right)\\ &=x_1 y_1 + x_2 y_2 \end{align*} is the standard dot product.

## Hilbert spaces

• A complete inner-product space is called a Hilbert space. Similarly, inner-product spaces are sometimes called pre-Hilbert spaces.
Ex.
• The Banach spaces $\R^n$, $l_2(\R)$ and $L_2(I,\R)$, as well as their complex counterparts $\C^n$, $l_2(\C)$ and $L_2(I,\C)$, all have norms that come from inner products: $\langle x, y \rangle_{\C^n} = \sum_{j=1}^n x_j \bar{y_j} \quad \text{ in }\quad \C^n,$ $\langle x, y \rangle_{l_2} = \sum_{j=1}^\infty x_j \bar{y_j} \quad \text{ in }\quad l_2,$ and $\langle x, y \rangle_{L_2} = \int_I x(s) \overline{y(s)}\,ds \quad \text{ in }\quad L_2.$ (If the spaces are real, there are no complex conjugates.) Thus, they are all Hilbert spaces. In particular, this proves the $l_2$- and $L_2$-norms defined earlier in this course are indeed norms.
• The space of real-valued bounded continuous functions on a finite open interval, $BC((a,b),\R)$, can be equipped with the $L_2$-inner product. This is a pre-Hilbert space, the completion of which is $L_2((a,b),\R)$.

### Convex sets and the closest point property

• Let $X$ be a linear space. A subset $M \subset X$ is called convex if $x, y \in M \quad \Longrightarrow \quad tx + (1-t)y \in M \quad \text{ for all } \quad t \in (0,1),$ i.e., if all points in $M$ can be joined by line segments in $M$.
Ex.
• Any hyperbox $\{ x \in \R^n \colon a_j \leq x_j \leq b_j\}$ is convex.
• Intuitively, any region with a 'hole', like $\R^n \setminus B_1$, is not convex.
• Linear subspaces are convex: $x, y \in M \quad \Longrightarrow\quad \mu x + \lambda y \in M \quad\text{ for all scalars } \mu, \lambda,$ clearly implies that $t x + (1-t) y \in M$ for all $t \in (0,1)$.

### > Closest point property (Minimal distance theorem)

Let $H$ be a Hilbert space, and $M \subset H$ a non-empty, closed and convex subset of $H$. For any $x_0 \in H$ there is a unique element $y_0 \in M$ such that $\| x_0 - y_0 \| = \inf_{y \in M} \| x_0 - y \|.$ N.b. The number $\inf_{y \in M} \| x_0 - y \|$ is the distance from $x_0$ to $M$, denoted $\mathrm{dist}(x_0,M)$.

Proof

Proof

A minimizing sequence: Since $M \neq \emptyset$, the number $d := \inf_{y \in M} \| x_0 - y \|$ is finite and non-negative, and by the definition of infinimum, there exists a minimizing sequence $\{y_j\}_{j \in \N} \subset M$ such that $\lim_{j \to \infty} \| x_0 - y_j\| = d.$

$\{y_j\}_{j \in \N}$ is Cauchy: By the parallelogram law applied to $x_0 - y_n$, $x_0 - y_m$, we have $\| 2 x_0 - (y_m + y_n)\|^2 + \| y_m - y_n\|^2 = 2 \| x_0 - y_m\|^2 + 2 \| x_0 - y_n\|^2 \to 4 d^2, \qquad m,n \to \infty.$ In view of that $M$ is convex and $d$ minimal, we also have that $\| 2 x_0 - (y_m + y_n)\|^2 = 4 \Big\| x_0 - \frac{y_m + y_n}{2}\Big\|^2 \geq 4d^2.$ Consequently, $\| y_m - y_n\|^2 \to 0 \quad \text{ as }\quad m,n \to \infty.$ Since $M \subset H$ is closed and $H$ is complete, there exists $y_0 = \lim_{j \to \infty} y_j \in M \quad\text{ with }\quad \| x_0 - y_0 \| = \lim_{j \to \infty}\|x_0 - y_j\| = d.$

Uniqueness: Suppose that $z_0 \in M$ satisfies $\| x_0 - z_0 \| = d$. Then $\frac{y_0 + z_0}{2} \in M$ and the parallelogram law (applied to $x_0 - y_0$, $x_0 - z_0$) yields that $\| y_0 - z_0 \|^2 = 2\|x_0 - y_0\|^2 + 2\|x_0 - z_0\|^2 -4\Big\| x_0 - \frac{y_0 + z_0}{2}\Big\|^2 \leq 2d^2 + 2d^2 - 4d^2 = 0,$ so that $z_0 = y_0$.

Ex.
• In the Hilbert space $\R^2$:
• The closed unit disk $\{ x_1^2 + x_2^2 \leq 1\}$ contains a unique element that minimizes the distance to the point $(2,0)$ (namely $(1,0)$).
• The subgraph $\{ x_2 \leq x_1^2 \}$ is closed but not convex; it has more than one point minimizing the distance to the point $(0,1)$.
• The open unit ball $\{ x_1^2 + x_2^2 < 1\}$ is convex but not closed; it has no element minimizing the distance to a point outside itself.
• Let $M_n := \mathrm{span} \{ e^{ikx}\}_{k=-n}^n$ be the closed linear span of trigonometric functions $1, e^{ix}, e^{-ix} \ldots, e^{inx}, e^{-inx} \in L_2((-\pi,\pi),\C)$. For any $n \in \N$ and any $f \in L_2((-\pi,\pi),\C)$ there is a unique linear combination of such functions that minimizes the $L_2$-distance to $f$: $\int_{-\pi}^\pi \big| f(x) - \sum_{k=-n}^n c_k e^{ikx} \big|^2\,dx = \min_{g \in M_n} \int_{-\pi}^\pi \big| f(x) - g(x) \big|^2\,dx.$ The coefficients $c_k$ are known as (complex) Fourier coefficients of the function $f$.