
# Gaussian elimination

## Linear systems

Any linear system of equations \begin{aligned} a_{11} x_1 + a_{12} x_2 + \cdots + a_{1n} x_n &= b_1\\ a_{21} x_1 + a_{22} x_2 + \cdots + a_{2n} x_n &= b_2\\ \vdots \qquad \vdots \qquad\quad \vdots \quad &\quad \vdots\\ a_{m1} x_1 + a_{m2} x_2 + \cdots + a_{mn} x_n &= b_m\\ \end{aligned} where $a_{ij}, b_i \in \mathbb C$ for $i = 1, \ldots,m$, $j = 1, \ldots, n$, and $x_1, \ldots, x_n$ are unknowns, can be written in matrix form: $\begin{bmatrix} a_{11} & a_{12} & \cdots & a_{1n}\\ a_{21} & a_{22} & \cdots & a_{2n}\\ \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots\\ a_{m1} & a_{m2} & \cdots & a_{mn}\\ \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} x_1 \\ x_2 \\ \vdots \\ x_n \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} b_1 \\ b_2 \\ \vdots \\ b_m \end{bmatrix}.$ Finding solutions $(x_1, \ldots, x_n$ of the linear system of equations is then equivalent to the following question: given a matrix $A \in M_{m\times n}(\mathbb C)$ and a vector $b \in \mathbb C^m$, is there a vector $x \in \mathbb C^n$ such that $Ax = b$? 1)
The answer depends on $A$ and, for some $A$, also on $b$.

Ex.
• \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 \\ 2 & 0 \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} x_1 \\ x_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 \\ 1 \end{bmatrix} \quad\Longleftrightarrow\quad \begin{aligned} x_1 &= 1\\ 2x_1& = 1 \end{aligned} \qquad\text{ has no solution.}
• \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 \\ 2 & 0 \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} x_1 \\ x_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 \\ 2 \end{bmatrix} \quad\Longleftrightarrow\quad \begin{aligned} x_1 &= 1\\ 2x_1& = 2 \end{aligned} \qquad\text{ has infinitely many solutions: } x_1 = 1, x_2 \in \mathbb \R.
• \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 1 \\ 2 & 0 \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} x_1 \\ x_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} b_1 \\ b_2 \end{bmatrix} \quad\Longleftrightarrow\quad \begin{aligned} x_1 + x_2 &= b_1\\ 2x_1 \:\:\quad &= b_2 \end{aligned} \qquad\text{ has a unique solution for any } b_1,b_2: x_1 = \frac{b_2}{2}, x_2 = b_1 - \frac{b_2}{2}.

## Gaussian elimination and the row echelon form of a matrix

A matrix is in row echelon form if i) the left-most non-zero entry of each row (pivot) is strictly to the right of the left-most non-zero entry of any row above, and ii) all-zero rows are at the bottom of the matrix: $\begin{bmatrix} 1 & \cdots & & &\\ 0 & 2 & \cdots & &\\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 7 & \cdots\\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots \end{bmatrix}$

### › Any linear system can be brought into row echelon form

Proof

Proof

If $A = 0$ is the zero matrix, we are done.

Else, assume for simplicity that $a_{11} \neq 0$ (If not rearrange the rows, or relabel the x_j:s, or both). To each row $(a_{i1}, \ldots, a_{in})$ below the first, add $-\frac{a_{i1}}{a_{11}} \times$ the first row: \begin{aligned} a_{11} x_1 + a_{12} x_2 + \cdots a_{1n} x_n &= b_1 \qquad -\frac{a_{i1}}{a_{11}}\\ a_{i1} x_1 + a_{i2} x_2 + \cdots a_{in} x_n &= b_2\\ \hline 0 + \bigg(a_{i2} - \frac{a_{i1}}{a_{11}} a_{12}\bigg) x_2 + \cdots \bigg(a_{in} - \frac{a_{i1} }{a_{11}}a_{1n} \bigg) x_n &= b_2 -\frac{a_{i1}}{a_{11}}b_1\\ \end{aligned} Then $a_{i1} = 0$ for all $i=2, \ldots, m$.

Now, either $a_{ij} = 0$ for all $i,j \geq 2$, or we can restart this procedure (looking at the matrix for indices $i,j \geq 2$). Since there are finitely many rows this procedure must eventually terminate, yielding a matrix $\tilde A = (\tilde a_{ij})_{ij}$ in row echelon form.

This algorithm is called Gaussian elimination.

A neat trick is the following: write $Ax = b$ as $Ax = Ib$: $\begin{bmatrix} a_{11} & a_{12} & \cdots & a_{1n}\\ a_{21} & a_{22} & \cdots & a_{2n}\\ \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots\\ a_{m1} & a_{m2} & \cdots & a_{mn}\\ \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} x_1 \\ x_2 \\ \vdots \\ x_n \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & \cdots & 0\\ 0 & 1 & \cdots & 0\\ \vdots & 0 & \ddots & \ldots\\ 0 & & \cdots & 1 \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} b_1 \\ b_2 \\ \vdots \\ b_m \end{bmatrix}, \qquad I \in M_{m \times m}.$ Gaussian elimination affects only the matrices $A$ and $I$, not the vectors $x$ and $b$. We therefore introduce the $m \times (n+m)$ augmented matrix $\begin{bmatrix} a_{11} & a_{12} & \cdots & a_{1n} & & 1 & 0 & \cdots & 0\\ a_{21} & a_{22} & \cdots & a_{2n} & & 0 & 1 & \cdots & 0\\ \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots & & \vdots & 0 & \ddots & \ldots\\ a_{m1} & a_{m2} & \cdots & a_{mn} & & 0 & & \cdots & 1 \end{bmatrix}.$ The linear operations applied to $A$ in Gaussian elimination are 'stored' in the augmented matrix.

Ex.
Solve $\underbrace{ \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 3 & 1\\ 2 & 2 & 0\\ 2 & 2 & -1 \end{bmatrix}}_{A} \underbrace{ \begin{bmatrix} x_1 \\ x_2 \\ x_3 \end{bmatrix}}_{x} = \underbrace{ \begin{bmatrix} 1 \\ 4 \\ 2 \end{bmatrix}}_{b} \quad\Longleftrightarrow\quad \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 3 & 1\\ 2 & 2 & 0\\ 2 & 2 & -1 \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} x_1 \\ x_2 \\ x_3 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0\\ 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} 1 \\ 4 \\ 2 \end{bmatrix}.$ Now, performing the same row operations on the whole augmented matrix, \begin{align*} \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 3 & 1 & & 1 & 0 & 0\\ 2 & 2 & 0 & & 0 & 1 & 0\\ 2 & 2 & -1 & & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix} \quad&\Longleftrightarrow\quad \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 3 & 1 & & 1 & 0 & 0\\ 0 & -4 & -2 & & -2 & 1 & 0\\ 0 & -4 & -3 & & -2 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix}\Longleftrightarrow\quad \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 3 & 1 & & 1 & 0 & 0\\ 0 & -4 & -2 & & -2 & 1 & 0\\ 0 & 0 & -1 & & 0 & -1 & 1 \end{bmatrix}, \end{align*} we find the row echelon form $\underbrace{ \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 3 & 1\\ 0 & -4 & -2\\ 0 & 0 & -1 \end{bmatrix}}_{U: \text{ upper triangular}} \begin{bmatrix} x_1 \\ x_2 \\ x_3 \end{bmatrix} = \underbrace{ \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0\\ -2 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & -1 & 1 \end{bmatrix}}_{\tilde L: \text{ lower triangular}} \begin{bmatrix} 1 \\ 4 \\ 2 \end{bmatrix}.$ Note that $\tilde L$ describes the (linear) transformation applied to $A$ to obtain $U$: we have $\tilde L A = U$.

## LU-decompositions

As we shall see, if $\tilde L A = U$, and if the inverse matrix $\tilde L^{-1}$ exists, bringing $\tilde L$ into row echelon row form yields $\tilde L^{-1}$. Define $L := \tilde L^{-1}$. Then $\tilde L A = U \quad \Longleftrightarrow \quad L \tilde L A = L U \quad \Longleftrightarrow \quad A = LU.$ This is the LU-decomposition of the matrix $A$ (it does not always exist).2)

N.b. If the rows of $A$ are not in correct order (for example, if $a_{11} = 0$), they can be rearranged by applying a permutation matrix $P$ 3): $\begin{bmatrix} 0 & 1 & 0\\ 0 & 0 & 1\\ 1 & 0 & 0 \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} \text{row } 1 \\ \text{row } 2 \\ \text{row } 3 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} \text{row } 2 \\ \text{row } 3 \\ \text{row } 1 \end{bmatrix}.$ This is known as an LUP-factorization: $PA = LU$. For square matrices, an LUP-factorization always exists (but it is not necessarily unique).

Ex.
Gaussian elimination for $\tilde L$ yields $\begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 & & 1 & 0 & 0\\ -2 & 1 & 0 & & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & -1 & 1 & & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix} \quad \Longleftrightarrow \quad \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 & & 1 & 0 & 0\\ 0 & 1 & 0 & & 2 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & -1 & 1 & & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix} \quad \Longleftrightarrow \quad \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 & & 1 & 0 & 0\\ 0 & 1 & 0 & & 2 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & & 2 & 1 & 1 \end{bmatrix},$ meaning that $\underbrace{ \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0\\ 2 & 1 & 0 \\ 2 & 1 & 1 \end{bmatrix}}_{L = \tilde L^{-1}} \underbrace{ \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0\\ -2 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & -1 & 1 \end{bmatrix}}_{\tilde L} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0\\ 0 & 1 & 0\\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix}.$ Hence, the LU-factorization of $A$ is $\begin{bmatrix} 1 & 3 & 1\\ 2 & 2 & 0\\ 2 & 2 & -1 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0\\ 2 & 1 & 0 \\ 2 & 1 & 1 \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 3 & 1\\ 0 & -4 & -2\\ 0 & 0 & -1 \end{bmatrix}.$

## Gauss-Jordan elimination

Let $\tilde L A = U$. The algorithm that applies Gaussian elimination (backwards) to the matrix $U$ is called Gauss-Jordan elimination. It places zeros below and above each pivot; this is called the reduced row echelon form of the matrix $A$. If $A^{-1}$ exists, Gauss–Jordan elimination finds it.

• Above, $\tilde L^{-1}$ gave us $A = \tilde L^{-1} U$ (the LU-factorization of $A$).
• In the following, $U^{-1}$ gives us $U^{-1} \tilde L A = I$, so that $U^{-1} \tilde L = U^{-1}L^{-1} = A^{-1}$ (the inverse of $A$).
Ex.
Still solving $\underbrace{ \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 3 & 1\\ 2 & 2 & 0\\ 2 & 2 & -1 \end{bmatrix}}_{A} \underbrace{ \begin{bmatrix} x_1 \\ x_2 \\ x_3 \end{bmatrix}}_{x} = \underbrace{ \begin{bmatrix} 1 \\ 4 \\ 2 \end{bmatrix}}_{b} \quad\Longleftrightarrow\quad \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 3 & 1\\ 2 & 2 & 0\\ 2 & 2 & -1 \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} x_1 \\ x_2 \\ x_3 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0\\ 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} 1 \\ 4 \\ 2 \end{bmatrix}.$ Gauss: $\begin{bmatrix} 1 & 3 & 1 & & 1 & 0 & 0\\ 0 & -4 & -2 & & -2 & 1 & 0\\ 0 & 0 & -1 & & 0 & -1 & 1 \end{bmatrix}.$ Gauss–Jordan4): $\begin{bmatrix} 1 & 3 & 1 & & 1 & 0 & 0\\ 0 & -4 & -2 & & -2 & 1 & 0\\ 0 & 0 & -1 & & 0 & -1 & 1 \end{bmatrix} \:\Leftrightarrow\: \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 3 & 0 & & 1 & -1 &1\\ 0 & -4 & 0 & & -2 & 3 & -2\\ 0 & 0 & -1 & & 0 & -1 & 1 \end{bmatrix} \:\Leftrightarrow\: \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 & & \textstyle{-\frac{1}{2}} & \textstyle{\frac{5}{4}} & \textstyle{-\frac{1}{2}}\\ 0 & -4 & 0 & & -2 & 3 & -2\\ 0 & 0 & -1 & & 0 & -1 & 1 \end{bmatrix}$ Dividing each row with its pivot gives us the inverse of $A$: $\begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 & & \textstyle{-\frac{1}{2}} & \textstyle{\frac{5}{4}} & \textstyle{-\frac{1}{2}}\\ 0 & 1 & 0 & & \textstyle{\frac{1}{2}} & -\textstyle{\frac{3}{4}} & \textstyle{\frac{1}{2}}\\ 0 & 0 & 1 & & 0 & 1 & -1 \end{bmatrix},$ meaning that $A^{-1} = U^{-1} \tilde L = \begin{bmatrix} \textstyle{-\frac{1}{2}} & \textstyle{\frac{5}{4}} & \textstyle{-\frac{1}{2}}\\ \textstyle{\frac{1}{2}} & -\textstyle{\frac{3}{4}} & \textstyle{\frac{1}{2}}\\ 0 & 1 & -1 \end{bmatrix}$ is the linear transformation that brings $A$ into the unit matrix. The solution to the original problem is $x = A^{-1}b \quad\text{ for any } b \in \mathbb R^3.$

N.b. The product of the final pivots in the Gauss–Jordan elimination (the diagonal elements $(1)(-4)(-1) = 4$ in the example above) is the determinant of $A$. It is zero exactly if the Gauss(–Jordan) elimination produces a zero row. In this case the equation $Ax = b$ either has no, or infinitely many, solutions (depending on $b$).

1)
When $A$ and $b$ are real, one looks for $x$ real.
2)
When it exists, it is unique if one requires the diagonal elements of $L$ to be all ones.
3)
A permutation matrix has (a permutation of) the standard basis $\{e_j\}_{j}$ as rows.
4)
If we start here with $I$ to the right in the augmented matrix, we obtain $U^{-1}$ instead of $A^{-1}$.